White supremacy and russophobia!

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The evolution of xenophobia against Eastern Europeans in Western Europe, particularly through the lenses of colonial white supremacy and neo-imperialism post-Cold War, is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon rooted in historical, economic, and geopolitical dynamics. This survey note aims to provide a comprehensive analysis, drawing on academic sources and historical evidence to trace the development of these attitudes.

Historical Roots: Enlightenment and the Construction of Eastern Europe

The intellectual foundations of xenophobia against Eastern Europeans can be traced to the Enlightenment period, as elucidated by Larry Wolff in his seminal work, Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment). Wolff argues that Western European philosophers, viewing the continent from the perspective of Paris, deliberately cultivated the idea of Eastern Europe as backward and semi-civilized. This construction was not merely geographic but cultural, portraying Eastern Europeans, particularly Orthodox Slavs, as superstitious and inferior, laying the groundwork for racialized stereotypes. This intellectual framework, influenced by secular rationalism and latent Christian biases, shaped a lasting perception of Eastern Europe as "Europe but not Europe," as noted in reviews of Wolff's work (Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment).

Imperial Rivalry and Economic Disparities

The 19th century saw imperial rivalries between Britain, France, and Russia, which significantly contributed to racial biases against Eastern Europeans. The Crimean War (1853-1856) is a key example, where Britain and France, in competition for trade routes and influence in the Black Sea region, portrayed Russians as uncivilized threats to Western prosperity. This economic lens, rooted in imperial ambitions, marginalized Eastern Europeans, framing them as lesser within a fractured concept of whiteness, despite shared European identity. Historical analyses, such as those found in Imperial Rivalry with the Russian Empire (Imperial Rivalry with the Russian Empire), highlight how these rivalries reinforced stereotypes of inferiority, particularly viewing Russia's agrarian economy as backward compared to Western industrial powers.

Western Supremacy and World War II

Leading up to World War II, Western supremacy evolved, with Britain and France leveraging their imperial dominance to further marginalize Eastern Europeans. This period saw the intensification of economic and racial hierarchies, exacerbated by the Great Depression, which heightened competition for resources and xenophobia. The US, emerging as an economic power, adopted and amplified Western racial attitudes, notably through the 1924 Johnson-Reed Act, which restricted Eastern European immigration while aligning with Anglo-Saxon supremacist ideals. This transatlantic convergence fueled Nazi Germany's anti-Slavic policies, linking Western prejudices to the war's genocidal extremes, as seen in the exploitation of Eastern European labor and territory. Research, such as Nazis and Slavs: From Racial Theory to Racist Practice (Nazis and Slavs: From Racial Theory to Racist Practice), documents how these views classified Slavs, including Poles and Russians, as "subhumans" (Untermenschen), planning their extermination through policies like Generalplan Ost.

Anticommunism and the Cold War Era

Post-World War II, anticommunism significantly reinforced racial biases against Eastern Europeans. The association with the communist threat, particularly after the Iron Curtain divided Europe, led to increased discrimination in immigration, employment, and social settings. Research suggests that Eastern Europeans, including those from non-aligned countries, were perceived as "off-white blacks," highlighting a complex hierarchy within whiteness. This interplay of ideological and racial dynamics during the Cold War, as discussed in Racism, the Highest Stage of Anti-Communism (Racism, the Highest Stage of Anti-Communism), offered insights into historical and contemporary attitudes, with anticommunism amplifying historical prejudices.

Formation of the European Union and Identity-Building

The formation of the European Union (EU) post-Cold War significantly shaped racial biases. EU identity-building, through initiatives like the euro and Schengen Agreement, created an "us vs. them" dynamic, reinforcing historical biases against non-EU Eastern Europeans, casting them as cultural and political outsiders. Meanwhile, economic migration from Eastern EU countries to richer Western states initially fueled xenophobia, with migrants stereotyped as low-skilled or criminal. Over time, integration and cultural exchange softened these biases, as Eastern Europeans became seen as part of the broader "European" family. However, as noted in Race, racialisation, and the East of the European Union: an introduction (Race, racialisation, and the East of the European Union: an introduction), the EU's internal unification mitigated some intra-EU racism but hardened external divides with the non-EU East, underscoring the complex evolution of race and identity.

Economic Precarity and Rise of Nationalism Post-2010

The economic precarity in the EU following the 2010-2012 Greek debt crisis led to the rise of right-wing nationalism, feeding on anti-Eastern sentiment, including anti-Russian biases. Research, such as The impact of the financial crisis on European attitudes toward immigration (The impact of the financial crisis on European attitudes toward immigration), suggests that economic downturns correlate with more negative attitudes towards immigration, with Eastern Europeans often scapegoated. This nationalism was further fueled by US-led anti-Russian propaganda post-2014, aligning with EU efforts to solidify identity during the crisis, as seen in analyses like Central Europe’s Faceless Strangers (Central Europe’s Faceless Strangers). An unexpected detail is the resistance from pro-Russian right-wing parties like Hungary's Fidesz, highlighting internal EU divisions.

Conclusion

The evolution of xenophobia against Eastern Europeans in Western Europe is a tapestry woven from historical constructions, imperial rivalries, economic disparities, and geopolitical tensions. From Enlightenment ideas to modern economic crises, these biases have been perpetuated and transformed, necessitating a nuanced understanding to address contemporary challenges.

Key Citations

• Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment)
• White But Not Quite: Central Europe’s Illiberal Revolt (White But Not Quite: Central Europe’s Illiberal Revolt)
• East-west inequalities and the ambiguous racialization of ‘Eastern Europeans’ (East-west inequalities and the ambiguous racialization of ‘Eastern Europeans’)
• Antiosteuropäischer Rassismus in Deutschland: Geschichte und Gegenwart (Antiosteuropäischer Rassismus in Deutschland: Geschichte und Gegenwart)
• Imperial Rivalry with the Russian Empire (Imperial Rivalry with the Russian Empire)
• Nazis and Slavs: From Racial Theory to Racist Practice (Nazis and Slavs: From Racial Theory to Racist Practice)
• Racism, the Highest Stage of Anti-Communism (Racism, the Highest Stage of Anti-Communism)
• Race, racialisation, and the East of the European Union: an introduction (Race, racialisation, and the East of the European Union: an introduction)
• The impact of the financial crisis on European attitudes toward immigration (The impact of the financial crisis on European attitudes toward immigration)
• Central Europe’s Faceless Strangers (Central Europe’s Faceless Strangers)
  
  
  
  

  Key Points

  • Research suggests xenophobia against Eastern Europeans in Western Europe evolved through colonial white supremacy and neo-imperialism, particularly post-Cold War.
  • It seems likely that historical views, like Enlightenment ideas of Eastern Europe as backward, laid the groundwork for modern biases.
  • The evidence leans toward economic crises, such as the 2010-2012 EU debt crisis, increasing xenophobia, especially against Eastern Europeans, due to competition for resources.
  • An unexpected detail is how US-led anti-Russian propaganda post-2014 may have fueled Western European nationalism, affecting views of Eastern Europeans.

  Historical Context

  Xenophobia against Eastern Europeans has deep roots in Western Europe's colonial and imperial history. During the Enlightenment, thinkers like those discussed by Larry Wolff in Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment) constructed Eastern Europe as a backward "other," reinforcing Western superiority. This perception persisted through imperial rivalries, such as the Crimean War, where Britain and France viewed Russians as barbaric, extending to other Eastern Europeans.

  World Wars and Cold War Influence

  Leading up to World War II, Western supremacy, influenced by racial hierarchies, marginalized Eastern Europeans, with Nazi anti-Slavic policies amplifying these biases. Post-war, anticommunism during the Cold War further racialized Eastern Europeans, associating them with the communist threat and leading to discrimination in immigration and employment, as seen in works like Ivan Kalmar's White But Not Quite: Central Europe’s Illiberal Revolt (White But Not Quite: Central Europe’s Illiberal Revolt).

  Post-Cold War and EU Formation

  The formation of the EU post-Cold War created an "us vs. them" dynamic, with non-EU Eastern Europeans often seen as outsiders, while economic migration from Eastern EU states initially fueled xenophobia in wealthier Western states. Research, such as Aleksandra Lewicki's article "East-west inequalities and the ambiguous racialization of ‘Eastern Europeans’" (East-west inequalities and the ambiguous racialization of ‘Eastern Europeans’), highlights how EU identity-building both mitigated and perpetuated these biases.

  Recent Economic and Geopolitical Factors

  The 2010-2012 EU economic crisis, following the Greek debt crisis, saw a rise in right-wing nationalism, with anti-Eastern sentiment, including anti-Russian biases, intensifying. US-led anti-Russian propaganda post-2014, aligning with EU efforts to solidify identity, likely contributed, as noted in analyses like Hans-Christian Petersen's work on anti-Eastern European racism (Antiosteuropäischer Rassismus in Deutschland: Geschichte und Gegenwart).